Exploring Educational Inequalities for Palestinian Children: A Capability Approach by Mais Basim Alawaj 

Postgraduate Taught MEd in Inclusion and Special Educational Needs 

Introduction  

Education is meant to be a gateway to opportunity, a space where every child can discover their potential and pursue their dreams, meaning that it is a basic human right (a pathway) to opportunity, self-expression, and a better future (Clark et al., 2020). For most children, it is a place where they can grow, learn, and imagine endless possibilities for their lives. It is essential that all children, regardless of their circumstances, have access to education and necessary services to enable them to contribute meaningfully to society. However, for Palestinian children living under occupation, this fundamental right is often out of reach. Even when they have the opportunity to attend schools, Palestinian children still lack vital elements such as a supportive environment, essential resources, safety, and overall happiness due to the ongoing effects of occupation (Hussein et al., 2024). Despite the importance of education for social mobility and survival under harsh political and economic conditions, Palestinian children—defined here as individuals under the age of 18 in line with Article 1 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)—continue to face significant barriers (Shakhshir, 2011, p.3; United Nations, 1989).  

I will use the Capabilities Approach (CA) as a framework to assess the impact of occupation on the education of Palestinian children. The CA is a normative framework focused on social justice, aiming to address deep-rooted inequalities (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 19). A normative framework comprises principles, values, and standards that guide decisions and policies by defining what is ethically or morally right. It provides a basis for evaluating societal goals, ensuring justice, equality, and well-being (Nussbaum, 2011, pp. 18–24). Central to the CA is the concept of ‘capabilities’—the actual freedoms and opportunities individuals have to live the lives they value, free from constraints (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 14). Nussbaum defines capabilities as the real opportunities people have to pursue meaningful lives without being hindered by limitations (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 20). ‘Functionings’ refer to the achievements people are able to realize through these capabilities (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 20). 

Developed by Sen and expanded by Nussbaum, the Capabilities Approach evaluates justice by focusing on individuals’ real freedoms and opportunities, rather than merely the distribution of resources (Sen, 1999; Nussbaum, 2011). Nussbaum identifies ten core capabilities essential for human dignity, all of which are relevant to this analysis. While my focus will centre on Bodily Health, Bodily Integrity, and Practical Reason (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 48), I will also consider the broader implications of all ten capabilities to ensure a comprehensive understanding.  

In this case study, I will investigate the experiences of Palestinian children living under occupation, particularly how their ability to realize these key capabilities is hindered. By exploring these capabilities, I intend to show how the occupation disrupts not only their education but also their potential to lead fulfilling and dignified lives. Furthermore, I will discuss the necessary changes to ensure that Palestinian children have equitable opportunities to thrive, in alignment with the fundamental principles of justice and human dignity outlined in the Capabilities Approach. 

Literature Review: Context 

This section provides an overview of the historical, psychological, and structural contexts that shape the educational experiences of Palestinian children. I will examine the historical and political influences on education in Palestine, followed by the profound psychological and emotional effects of ongoing conflict. Finally, I will discuss the structural barriers that Palestinian students face in accessing education, particularly under occupation. This section highlights the multifaceted challenges faced by Palestinian children, illustrating how these contextual factors converge to hinder their educational opportunities. 

1. Historical and Political Context of Education in Palestine  

Throughout Palestinian history, education has been shaped by external powers, starting with the Ottoman Empire, followed by the British Mandate, and since 1948, Israeli rule, including the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza since 1967. This control has limited Palestinian autonomy over their educational system (Abu-Saad & Champagne, 2006; Hussein et al., 2024). As a result of their lack of political self-determination, the prolonged Israeli Palestinian conflict and decades of military occupation have severely impacted Palestinian children’s ability to access quality education (Hussein et al., 2024). Education, crucial for societal development, has become a tool of resistance and survival against oppression for Palestinians, central to their struggle for social justice (Pherali & Turner, 2018). However, these historical and political realities have imposed enduring challenges, such as limited access to schools, inadequate infrastructure, and significant psychological trauma among students (Abu-Saad & Champagne, 2006). Moreover, frequent disruptions to the curriculum, lack of essential resources, and political interference exacerbate the inequities faced by Palestinian students (Pherali & Turner, 2018). Therefore, these challenges reflect the broader socio-political context faced by Palestinians, where external pressures and instability undermine their right to quality education, ultimately affecting their future opportunities and social development (Save the Children, 2021; Tayyab, 2020). 

2. Psychological and Emotional Effects of Conflict on Learning  

The historical context of occupation and conflict has profoundly affected Palestinian children’s lives, contributing to significant psychological and emotional challenges that hinder their educational experiences. The emotional toll of frequent exposure to violence, family displacement, and ongoing instability has been documented in various studies (Clark et al., 2020). In discussions with children aged 6-18, Clark et al. (2020) found that themes such as family unity, safety from violence, and clean environments emerged as vital for their happiness, which, in turn, positively influenced their educational experience. The study highlights that children’s education is strongly linked to their emotional well-being, as shown by Nigerian children emphasizing parental love and New Zealand children focusing on the joy of family interactions (Clark et al., 2020). A supportive home environment is critical for academic achievement, yet many Palestinian children lack this stability due to conflict. Military checkpoints, restricted movement, and the constant threat of violence create an environment of uncertainty and fear, severely impacting their educational experience (Jebril, 2023). The situation is even worse now, as much of the existing literature predates the current conflict, which has intensified the effects of violence on Palestinian children. Frequent school shutdowns, scarce resources, and the ongoing trauma from surrounding violence further exacerbate their psychological distress (Boukari et al., 2024). A systematic review found that political conflict and violence have led to high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among Palestinian youth (Agbaria et al., 2021). PTSD symptoms, including anxiety, sleep disturbances, nightmares, and emotional breakdowns, inhibit children’s academic engagement and further erode their mental health (Todorova & Rosendo, 2021, p. 204).  

The compounded effects of exposure to violence, anxiety, and chronic political oppression deepen social distress, disrupting educational experiences (Ayer et al., 2017; Jabali et al., 2024; Giacaman et al., 2011). Consequently, addressing the broader social context of children’s lives is essential to improving their academic performance. Thabet, Abed, and Vostanis (2002) found a correlation between emotional issues and lower school attendance, reinforcing the need for emotional support within educational settings to foster academic success. Moreover, Veronese et al. (2022) argue that while education can serve as a tool for resistance against structural violence, the psychological impacts of such violence still hinder Palestinian students’ full engagement in their education. This highlights the dual nature of education in conflict settings—both a pathway to empowerment and a challenge due to the lingering effects of trauma (Veronese et al., 2022). The ongoing trauma detrimentally affects mental health, concentration, school attendance, and overall academic performance (Agbaria et al., 2021; Ayer et al., 2017; Thabet et al., 2002). 

3. Structural Barriers to Educational Access  

Education in Palestine has been marked by severe structural barriers under Israeli military administration, including inadequate supplies, limited access to schools, insufficient funding, and an unsuitable curriculum influenced by security forces (Abu-Saad & Champagne, 2006). Military checkpoints, school closures, curfews, demolitions, overcrowded classrooms, and a lack of educational resources have significantly impeded Palestinian students’ access to education and disrupted their learning outcomes (Jebril, 2023).  

In Gaza, the blockade and frequent military conflict have devastated educational infrastructure, leaving students and educators without the necessary facilities for consistent learning (Jebril, 2023). Military strikes on schools and universities have further hindered the ability to maintain educational continuity (Silberberg, 2019). Additionally, military checkpoints and curfews have resulted in prolonged absences from school, with some students missing weeks of education, thus severely disrupting academic progress (Silberberg, 2019). Checkpoints strategically placed by Israeli forces to obstruct travel have exposed Palestinian students and teachers to violence, including shootings, injuries, and arrests during their commutes to school (Abu-Saad & Champagne, 2006). The construction of the ‘Separation Wall’—a series of fences and walls built by Israel—has further isolated Palestinian communities, particularly in East Jerusalem, from access to education and other services (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs [OCHA], 2022). The wall has separated thousands of students from their schools, further compounding the difficulties faced by Palestinian families (Naser-Najjab, 2020). In 2011, over 3,400 students were separated from their schools due to the wall and military checkpoints (Naser-Najjab, 2020). However, it is crucial to acknowledge that the situation has worsened significantly in recent years, with around 90% of schools in Gaza either damaged or destroyed due to ongoing conflict. The extent of the destruction is far greater than the estimates previously reported, highlighting the increased challenges to educational access (Boukari et al., 2024). This escalates the implications for Palestinian children’s education, as the destruction of schools and educational infrastructure further undermines their right to education and future opportunities. 

Why is the Capability Approach a useful theory of justice?  

The CA offers a useful lens for addressing the challenges of limited access to education, particularly by focusing on ‘the struggles of traditionally marginalized groups’ and exploring potential solutions for improving their educational opportunities. (Nussbaum, 2011, p.186). The CA rests on two fundamental normative claims. First, it asserts that the ‘freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance’, which, for Palestinian children, means that access to education and fulfilling lives should be regarded as a moral priority rather than just a policy issue (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 18). Second, Nussbaum’s version of the CA is rooted in the idea that justice should be evaluated not just in terms of resources or outcomes but in terms of the ‘real freedoms and opportunities’—what she calls “capabilities”—that individuals have to live lives they value (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 19). This approach emphasizes what individuals ‘are actually able to do and to be,’ focusing on the specific ‘opportunities or substantial freedoms’ available to each person, making it particularly relevant for addressing educational inequalities, especially where capability failures ‘result from discrimination or marginalization’ (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 18-19). 

At the heart of Nussbaum’s CA (2011) is the concept of human dignity, which she argues is a fundamental aspect of justice (p.19). For Nussbaum (2011), human dignity requires that individuals have the opportunity to develop and exercise their capabilities to the fullest extent possible (p.18). Central to her CA is the key question: ‘What is each person able to do and to be?’ This question guides social justice assessments by focusing on individual opportunities rather than aggregate well-being, highlighting the importance of choice and freedom, and asserting that just societies must promote substantive freedoms that allow individuals to exercise according to their own self-definition (p. 18). In the context of education, this means that children must have access to the conditions that allow them to develop essential capabilities, such as cognitive development, emotional well-being, and social participation (Nussbaum, 2011). This approach is particularly well-suited to address the educational inequalities faced by Palestinian children, who, despite potentially developing internal capabilities like resilience and learning, are constrained by external barriers such as conflict and occupation, which severely limit their combined capabilities—opportunities to effectively utilize these skills in education and beyond (Nussbaum, 2011. The CA underscores the importance of granting children the genuine freedom to pursue their education despite challenges such as conflict and trauma, providing a useful framework for understanding how political instability undermines educational justice (Nussbaum, 2011). 

Palestinian Children’s Education and Central Capabilities 

Nussbaum’s (2011) ‘10 central capabilities’—essential for leading a life of dignity and flourishing—provide a valuable framework for understanding the injustices faced by Palestinian children with limited access to education due to occupation (p.33). Nussbaum’s second central capability, Bodily health, emphasizes the necessity of “good health, including reproductive health” (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 33). Palestinian children face heightened risks of physical and psychological issues due to the violence and instability in their environment, with exposure to conflict being associated with increased stress-related disorders and health complications that hinder their educational engagement (Ayer et al., 2017). Hence, this risk is exacerbated by inadequate access to healthcare services, leaving children vulnerable to chronic health issues that further impede their ability to pursue education (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 22). 

In addition to Bodily health, is the capability for Bodily integrity—defined as the ability ‘to move freely from place to place,’ to be ‘secure against violent assault, including sexual assault and domestic violence,’ and to have ‘opportunities for sexual satisfaction and choice in matters of reproduction’ —is critical in the educational context (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 33). The occupation significantly increases the risk of violence against children, including harassment and physical danger in their communities, undermining their sense of safety and security (Jebril, 2023). Furthermore, inadequate sexual education leaves these children, vulnerable to exploitation and limits their understanding of their own bodily autonomy, which is essential for making informed decisions about their health and safety (Nussbaum, 2011, p.113). Palestinian children, particularly girls, often face unsafe conditions while traveling to school, which can lead to increased absenteeism and a reluctance to attend (Cavazzoni et al., 2021).  

Additionally, limited access to education for Palestinian children under occupation exemplifies Nussbaum’s (2011) concept of “corrosive disadvantage,” where violence, misinformation, and inadequate resources create cycles of vulnerability, jeopardizing their bodily integrity and impeding their academic growth (p. 44). This situation reflects both “fertile functioning” and corrosive disadvantage. Fertile functioning refers to ‘the capacity to engage in activities that foster capabilities necessary for a fulfilling life’ (p.44). Education plays a vital role in providing essential skills for personal and societal development, yet the occupation imposes significant barriers to education that impede immediate learning, entrench long-term inequalities, and undermine children’s future prospects, reinforcing disadvantage (Awawda, 2018). The cumulative effects result in what can be described as a “catastrophe,” echoing the term used by Palestinians to describe the displacement and devastation following the 1948 Nakba, which continues to undermine Palestinian children’s rights and opportunities for growth ‘catastrophe failure’ (Jabareen, 2006). 

Nussbaum’s central capability of practical reason is also essential for understanding the barriers to education faced by Palestinian children. Practical reason encompasses the ability ‘to form a conception of the good and plan one’s life accordingly’ (Nussbaum, 2011, p.34). However, the constraints imposed by occupation severely limit children’s opportunities to develop critical thinking and decision-making skills. These constraints include restricted access to schools, inadequate educational resources, and limited opportunities for intellectual engagement (Giacaman et al., 2011). The pervasive sense of uncertainty and trauma from the conflict further diminishes their capacity for practical reason, as the environment often fails to support their educational aspirations (Veronese et al., 2022). Nussbaum (2011) states that if individuals are well-nourished but unable to make informed health decisions, their situation lacks true human dignity, resembling infant care (p. 39). By exploring Bodily health, Bodily integrity, and Practical reason, we see how these interconnected capabilities are frequently compromised for Palestinian children, limiting their potential to lead fulfilling and dignified lives. For them, accessing education goes beyond learning; it includes the freedom to envision a hopeful future (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 20). However, it is important to note that the situation has become even more dire today. The escalating violence and military operations in the region have only intensified the physical, emotional, and intellectual barriers to education. The ongoing instability has further restricted children’s ability to plan for their futures or engage in meaningful educational pursuits, significantly deepening the limitations on their practical reasoning capabilities. 

What Ought We to Do? 

A central aspect of Nussbaum’s (2011) CA is the urgent responsibility of governments and public policy to enhance individuals’ capabilities—such as bodily integrity, bodily health, and practical reason—which are essential for ensuring educational access for all (p.19). In the case of Palestine, this framework requires the Israeli government and the international community to take responsibility for dismantling the structural barriers that prevent Palestinian children from realizing their full potential (UNICEF, 2012). 

Bodily integrity, as mentioned earlier, refers to the ability ‘to freely move from place to place and be secure against violent assault’ (Nussbaum, 2011, p.33). This determines that Palestinian children should have the right to attend school without facing any barriers or threats, just as children everywhere are entitled to do. This includes dismantling the system of checkpoints, removing the separation wall, and ensuring the safety of children within their schools, free from military raids and settler violence (Bosqui et al., 2024). The bodily health aspect refers to the need for adequate nutrition, healthcare, and sanitation, all of which are prerequisites for effective learning (Nussbaum, 2011, p.33). The Israeli occupation not only limits access to education but also healthcare and basic living standards, with many Palestinian children suffering from malnutrition and preventable diseases due to the blockade and restrictions on humanitarian aid (Bosqui et al., 2024). Finally, practical reason encompasses the ability to engage in critical thinking and pursue personal goals (Nussbaum, 2011, p.34), necessitating a stable and supportive educational environment that Palestinian children are unable to fully develop due to frequent disruptions caused by occupation-related violence and instability (Bosqui et al., 2024). 

The historical and political context of Palestinian education, shaped by external influences since the 1967 occupation, involves Israel managing the educational system—overseeing school construction, curriculum, and teacher employment—while Israeli policies continue to restrict school development and mobility, disrupting education through checkpoints and closures, thereby violating UN human rights conventions and degrading educational quality (Hasan & Buheji, 2024). Addressing these issues relates to affiliation, which emphasizes the ability ‘to live with and show concern for others’, enabling inclusive and equitable educational settings (Nussbaum, 2011, p.34). Thus, the international community has a responsibility to advocate for Palestinian children’s right to education, as enshrined in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1948; United Nations, 1989; Bosqui et al., 2024). 

Emotions (Capability 5), which Nussbaum describes as ‘being able to have attachments to things and people outside ourselves’ (Nussbaum, 2011, p.33), is deeply affected by the conflict. The ongoing violence, displacement, and trauma from occupation profoundly impact children’s mental health, impairing their ability to learn (Bosqui et al., 2024). The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings calls for immediate action to cease violence against children, provide access to basic physiological needs, and protect family connections (Bosqui et al., 2024). Addressing these psychological barriers requires investment in mental health and psychosocial support systems that are integrated into schools and healthcare facilities (Bosqui et al., 2024). Without adequate support for emotional health and control over one’s environment, which includes both political participation, ‘the right to influence decisions affecting one’s life, and protections for free speech and association’, as well as material rights ‘the ability to own property, seek equal employment, and be free from unwarranted searches’(Nussbaum, 2011, p.34), Palestinian children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development will remain stunted, perpetuating generational trauma (Bosqui et al., 2024). 

In terms of control over one’s environment, structural barriers continue to deny Palestinian children’s rights to education (Hasan & Buheji, 2024). The inability to build or renovate schools due to Israeli restrictions, as well as frequent school closures and obstruction of students’ and teachers’ movement, severely hampers educational access in the occupied territories (Pherali & Turner, 2018). Checkpoints, the separation wall, and other infrastructural barriers hinder regular attendance, forcing students to travel long distances under unsafe conditions. Therefore, international efforts should advocate for removing these obstacles to ensure unimpeded access to education as mandated by international humanitarian law (Ramahi, 2015). 

The capability of senses, imagination, and thought involves ‘being able to use one’s senses, imagination, and reasoning, supported by a well-rounded education that includes literacy and scientific training,’ while also ensuring ‘freedom of expression and religious practice, allowing individuals to engage in creative and intellectual pursuits’ (Nussbaum, 2011, p.33). In line with this, Human Rights Education (HRE) aims to foster democratic values and social progress by empowering individuals and communities (Gordon, 2012). However, Gordon’s case study on Israel reveals that HRE is often hindered by structural and subjective barriers, highlighting the need for integrated and desegregated educational models where Palestinian and Jewish students can learn together (Gordon, 2012). 

The capability of play, which includes ‘being able to laugh, to play, to enjoy recreational activities’ (Nussbaum, 2011, p.34), is severely compromised for Palestinian children living under occupation. A recent study highlights the long-term effects of restricted access to play, showing that ongoing violence in Gaza has caused widespread trauma, significantly diminishing children’s opportunities for recreation and social engagement, which in turn impairs their emotional and social development (University of Cambridge and Centre for Lebanese Studies, 2024). In this context, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a crucial role in advocating for Palestinian children’s rights and supporting their education; however, their effectiveness is often constrained by conditional funding from foreign donors, particularly Western governments, which limits their ability to engage in political advocacy or support Palestinian self-determination (Awawda, 2018). To strengthen their impact, it is important to transition from conditional foreign aid to more autonomous funding models, allowing these organizations to operate independently (Bosqui et al., 2024). Nevertheless, the most essential step is for Israel to recognize the rights of Palestinians to their lands, equal citizenship, and opportunities for self-realization, addressing systemic discrimination and ensuring that all citizens, regardless of ethnicity, have true equality and the freedom to their potential (Cohen-Almagor, 2021). 

Conclusion 

The limited access to education faced by Palestinian children under occupation severely hinders their ability to achieve wellbeing, dignity, and flourishing, in terms of the ten central capabilities. Despite structural barriers such as military checkpoints, school demolitions, and restricted mobility that limit educational opportunities, the resilience of the Palestinian education system continues to shine through (Jabali et al., 2024). International research shows that governments and organizations can implement actionable steps to mitigate these barriers, and the CA provides a valuable framework to address the impacts of occupation on education and personal development. Education is key to unlocking Palestinian children’s potential; however, there is an urgent need for further interdisciplinary research that addresses the compounded effects of conflict, displacement, and psychological trauma on education. 

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