Marta Cipriano – 2nd Year Sociology

Abstract

This essay demonstrates how Sociology has allowed people to see beyond commonsensical views and discusses roles women have had throughout different generations. For decades, women were seen as the weaker sex and often as subordinates to men in all aspects of society such as family life and employment. When writing this paper, there was a particular interest in how feminism has changed this and so it is written from a feminist point of view. Talcott Parsons and Freud drove the direction of this paper as they had very concrete views on women and their roles in society. All the information and data gathered is secondary, driven by personal experience and an interest in feminism. The results found is that since feminist movements in the 1960s, women in society have gained a newfound respect and no longer depend on men to have a status in today’s world. For further research, a more globalized project would have to take place to get a better understanding of how sexes are seen beyond our local societies.

Introduction

“Rich knowledge which is disorganised, ineffable and inarticulate” has been described as common sense by Bauman and May (2001, p.6) and “…To think sociologically is to make sense of the human condition via an analysis of the manifold webs of human interdependency…” (Bauman & May, 2001, p. 8).

It is believed that even though not every individual is an expert in a field, everyone possesses an extensive amount of tacit knowledge (common sense) (Bauman & May, 2001). Tacit knowledge is acquired through sights and life experiences describing knowledge an individual may not often know how to express (Polanyi & Sen, 2009) and it shapes how they think and act, these actions often being subconscious.

Sociological thinking, also described as explicit knowledge, differs in being objective, impersonal and narrative (Hislop, 2013). Empirical research and conclusions are obtained to guarantee the reliability, and wide samples are evaluated not only quantitatively but also qualitatively giving an outlook on society as a whole rather than a few individuals (Bauman & May, 2001). Researchers often spend years observing and studying a specific field (Bauman & May, 2001). When presenting this work, before publishing, they go through intense peer review, leaving little space for a common-sense point of view (Bauman & May, 2001).

In this essay, gender will be discussed through sociological studies and how this has enabled us to see past common sense. The concepts of gender and gender roles will be examined, including work by theorists Talcott Parsons and Juliet Mitchel; to understand multiple viewpoints on these topics. Gender in the workforce will also be discussed.

Gender

Commonsensical views between men and women tend to focus on the biological differences between the sexes (Haralambos, et al., 2013). In the 1950s and 1960s, when structural functionalism was prevailing strongly in society, socially constructed differences and roles between men and women were implemented in order for society to run efficiently (Holmes, 2007). This theory posited that in order for a society to run proficiently, society had to abide by social norms, making sure individuals would conform to what was expected of them (Connell, 2005).

Only since the ’70s have sociologists made the distinction between gender and sex (Holmes, 2007). Sex has since been distinguished as the biological differences between males and females while gender is the socially produced differences between masculinity and femininity (Holmes, 2007).

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was a strong proponent of structural functionalism and argued that boys and girls are socialised to take on traits that are complementary to each other to make it easier to maintain stable productive family units. Parsons’ theoretical position was that boys were taught ‘instrumental qualities’ such as confidence and competitiveness that prepared them for the labour force. Meanwhile, girls were taught ‘expressive qualities’ like empathy and sensitivity which prepared them to care for their families. Parsons’ theory states that a successful family needs people to have complementary skill sets and gender provides a way to pair off these skills (Black, 1961). Although this theory was influential in the mid-20th century, the theory had limitations that left it open to critique. It was only specific to middle-class white America in the ’40s and ’50s and it assumed a heteronormative Western perspective on what a family should look like; a man, women and children, ignoring all other forms of families such as homosexual parents and single parents (Stoller, 1968).

“…Gender is a term that has psychological and cultural connotations; if the proper terms for sex are ‘male’ and ‘female’, then the corresponding terms for gender are ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’; these latter might be quite independent of (biological) sex…”

 (Stoller, 1968, p. 9).

Furthermore, this states that not all females are going to be feminine and vice versa, it also suggests that women do not always adopt characteristics such as compassion and nurture and men are not always going to be violent. People are not always going to conform to social norms (Haralambos, et al., 2013). There are multiple forms of masculinity and femininity in contemporary societies which can result from cultural, class, and ethnic differences in societies (Connell, 2002).

For decades, psychoanalysis had seen women as inferior and claimed that women could only be truly referred to as such when performing the roles of a wife and/or a mother (Mitchell, 1974). Scientists such as Freud, studied, correlated, and backed them up, demonstrating justification for social stratification and the bourgeois (Mitchell, 1974). 

Sociologist Juliet Mitchell revolutionised this theory with the release of ‘Psychoanalysis and Feminism’(1974). In this work, Mitchell studied how Freud’s work partially shaped feminism. Even though Freud was seen as the greatest enemy to this movement, Mitchell argued that ignoring these factors would be fatal, as feminism would not have evolved as much and women would not have fought as mercilessly if there was not something that had proved opposite to what they were fighting for (Mitchell, 1974).

Women in the 19^th century actively campaigned around several fields such as education, health and working conditions. They wanted women’s rights to be changed and wanted to create equality between the sexes (Ramazanoğlu & Holland, 2002). This was an impactful development in history for women. By the end of the 19^th century, feminism was recognised as a group of individuals that would advocate for women’s rights. Due to the diversity of feminism, there was no specific profile for an individual that would make them a feminist as long as they believed in equality (Ramazanoğlu & Holland, 2002). Feminism advocated that past oppressive arrangements could be addressed, and sex role expectations could be altered as well as gender socialisation (Connell, 2002).

There are various forms of feminism; political, methodological and philosophical. Each represents different areas of beliefs in the subject. Political feminism is often described in waves, set time periods in which women fought for particular rights such as legal rights (1st wave), social equality (2nd wave), and individualist recognition (3rd wave) (Mitchell, 1974) (CarneadesCyrene, 2018). Philosophical feminists usually focus on both morality and empirical data surrounding inequality, they have their moral opinions but are also able to accept that there is inequality but not believe that it is morally right. Lastly, methodological feminism is taking both previous forms and applying a critical lens to it to analyse male-dominant areas of thought focussing on areas such as intersectionality and relationships (Mitchell, 1974).

Gender Roles

The female population does not only struggle on an individual basis but also against patriarchal relations often controlled by men. They are expected to be submissive to men and their needs either economically or through desire (Poya, 1999). This subordination is not fixed, changes come through social shifts rather than from laws (Poya, 1999). This suggests that society has to change and adapt, whether through social norms or perspectives on the sexes.

Being a housewife over the last few centuries was a role that many women took on and not always by choice. Being a housewife is a family role (Black, 1961). It was feminine and for centuries it was also the person, other than servants, who were responsible for the upkeeping of the home (Oakley, 1974). Women were seen as the wife of a householder and were economically dependent on men (Oakley, 1974). Men could not take the role of a housewife and those who did, were seen as an abnormality as it went against social norms (Oakley, 1974). Parsons (1955) describes the man’s role in the family as essential for status. Where the man worked and what status he held would determine where the family would fall both culturally and economically in society. It was seen that essentially if the man had a substantial income and had a job of high status, he was succeeding in his role of a husband and father (Black, 1961). Women, in the western world, no longer have to stay at home and be a housewife or a mother if they do not wish, for the most part, and for men, there is less amounted pressure of providing and creating a status for the family (Arruzza, 2013). As it is seen in gender and sex with the migration of roles and characteristics, the same is done in the role in the family. More often, both men and women are the head of the home, often splitting roles (Arruzza, 2013).

Areas such as education would lag for women in the 19^th century. Society believed that women were too delicate and poised to endure academic work, that going to university and progressing educationally and professionally, would result in mental disturbance and that this would affect their capacity to perform the roles of a mother or a wife (Connell, 2005). Psychological studies have since shown that this is a myth and that there is no correlation (Connell, 2005). Studies internationally over the years have analysed social factors that may contribute to involvement and attendance in education. Cultural tradition comes into play (Pal, 2004). There is a rise in female education if it is a tradition that they are educated. The role men play in society also affects their involvement in education. If regular men’s jobs are paying higher than women’s, then men do not have the incentive to be educated and are trained for a job rather than educated (Pal, 2004).

In the French revolution there were many radical protests demanding rights for women since most of the responsibility for managing family finances and looking after the family was dependant on the female of the household. Due to the lack of care for women of lower classes, hunger and misery were often blamed on them (Arruzza, 2013). These women became linked with bourgeois feminism, represented by middle or upper-class women which was a struggle but beneficiary (Arruzza, 2013). Bourgeois feminism was recognised as having two main focuses: the demand for educational access which if progressed, would result in a career. Secondly, demands for civil and political rights, including rights to vote, to divorce and to own property which had been previously only available to certain men (Arruzza, 2013).

Gender in the Workforce

In pre-industrial society, agriculture and textiles were the main occupations of the British population and both men and women worked in these fields as labour were short (Oakley, 1974). In agriculture, women did the bulk of the work from managing dairy products such as butter and cheese, to the training of servants which would be both male and female. It was believed that the role of the female-dominated the role of the male in this area. Those women who performed stereotypically ‘male’ jobs and ran businesses such as agriculture would be seen as an anomaly and would often be ostracised, simply while they were demonstrating skills like men (Oakley, 1974).

Since the 1970s, there have been educational reforms to abstain girls from being segregated into ‘women’s jobs’ from an early age. They were then encouraged to go into ‘men’s fields such as science and technology (Connell, 2002). However, professionally, women are still being limited into certain fields such as social work, nursing and child care, jobs in which compassion and care are shown, two characteristics commonly associated with females, while men inhabit more hands-on jobs such as mechanics, policing and engineering, demonstrating intelligence, strength and leadership (Connell, 2002). Even though equal opportunity policies have been put in place, there is still a large imbalance of females to males in these positions. The jobs that are being categorised as more adequate for men are usually higher pay and often higher status and reputation leaving inequality at a high rate (Huppatz, 2012).

Working-class women when the Enlightenment and Industrialisation occurred would be paid roughly half of men’s wages for the same amount of work in order to continue their dependency. As well as working over 10 hour days in a factory, they would also have to take care of the home affairs as well as of the family which would often result in women becoming ill both physically and mentally (Arruzza, 2013), also explaining the high rates of drug use amongst housewives, using substances such as Xanax and Benzodiazepines to relieve them from anxiety and depression (Herzberg, 2006) (Gupta, 2015)Though there is still a substantial pay gap for most companies (round the 8-15%) (GOV.UK, 2018 ^a) (GOV.UK, 2018 ^b) (GOV.UK, 2018 ^c), the added pressure for a woman in the household is not as often the case anymore, with the most couple splitting responsibilities with the family and financially

Conclusion

Over the years, sociology has helped us view gender as more than women being women and men being men. It has allowed insight that masculinity does not always refer to men and femininity does not always refer to women as well as the characteristics that most people associated them with.

Common-sense viewpoints are not as simple and narrowly focused as before (Bauman & May, 2001). Genders migrate their characteristics into each other and faceless judgement. Some individuals use their gender and sexuality to express themselves and feminism has had a significant impact in this matter, allowing and supporting not only women fighting for their rights but men wanting to transition and migrate into womanhood as well.

In the workplace there is still a tremendous gap in pay across most cultures, although this has improved. Professionally, there is still segregation, but we are able to see a change, such as the increase of women in the police force in the past decade (National Statistics, 2019, p. 31). Subjects such as sexuality and queer theory could be studied and analysed for further research on how societies can change through time and place.

References

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